Egyptology

Egyptology

How 18^th - 20^th Century Climate Affected Pursuit of Egyptology knowledge

Archeology in Egypt started in earnest with the invasion of Egypt by Napoleon in the 18th Century. Napoleon was accompanied by a group of scholars who after the successful invasion started recording archaeological artifacts of Egypt. Their findings were published in a book called the Description de l’ Egypt. Courtesy of these scholars finding, Jean- Francois Champollion who was a French Historian and language expert was able to interpret and decipher the ancient writings of the Egyptian in for the first time in 1882[1].

The deciphering of the Egyptian writings made it possible for scholars to read and understand many writings which have been left by the past Egyptians. The deciphering was the most important step leading to Egyptian archeology otherwise known as the Egyptology. Egyptology is the study of ancient Egypt culture and languages that existed between the 6th millennium BC to the first century AD. It combines the latest archaeological methods and practices, to decipher ancient Egyptian texts using philological and linguistic investigations.

The first document which was written by the pharaohs was written around 3150 BCE[2] after the development of hieroglyphic script founded in Upper Egypt. The preservation of the documents written by the pharaohs, their children and their successors were greatly aided by the arid climate of Egypt. These documents formed the foundation upon which Egyptology was founded.

The history of Egypt was affected briefly after the Romans conquered Egypt at around 31 BCE[3]. The coming of the Romans witnessed the introduction of Hellenism which greatly influenced the Egyptian culture. This was because the Romans wanted Egyptian to desert their way of living their religion particularly and start practicing Catholicism.  Because of this, the Egyptian culture was greatly contaminated by this invasion. However, what contributed significantly to the preservation of the Egyptian culture and their religion was the existence of the hieroglyphic scripts which had been written on the walls of the Egyptian temples. Introduction of Christianity in Egypt during the 1st century also contributed to the erosion of the Egyptian culture, in a way when Greek alphabet was introduced in Egypt in 250 CE as a replacement of Egypt’s hieroglyphic alphabets[4].

The other great discovery that gave a big boost to the study of the Egyptology was the discovery of Rosetta stone. A French engineer discovered the Rosetta stone, and it contained hieroglyphic and demotic texts from Greece. Jean-François Champollion helped to decipher what was inscribed in the Rosetta in 1822[5]. After the successful deciphering, Champollion together with an Italian scholar embarked on an expedition of Egypt at around 1828 and published their findings in a book named Monuments de L’Egypte et Nubie. Their expedition was followed closely by another one by Karl Richard Lepsius in 1845. Sir John Gardener from England also made an essential contribution to this end of copying and collecting materials in Egypt. As a result of these expeditions, a lot of information about Egypt was made available to European scholars and archeologist who would later visit Egypt for archaeological purposes.

During Muhammad Ali’s reign as the Egyptian president from 1805- 1849, the president opened Egypt to foreigners and consular representatives. This ushered in the period of adventures by the foreigners in search of antiquities. The ensuing rash for antiquities was at times done in ways that can be categorized as plunder. From this act of opening of Egypt to foreigners, it captivated the establishments of numerous European Egyptian Museum collections. Most of the museums relied on restocking mostly from smuggled and stolen Egyptian artifacts.     An archaeologist called Auguste Mariette after discovering the Serapenum successfully approached Sa’id Pasha who was a viceroy of Egypt to establish an Egyptian Museum as well as open a department of services for the antiquities. The viceroy made Auguste Mariette the director of both establishments. These two establishments were instrumental in curtailment of uncontrolled plundering, collection and digging of antiquities in an uncontrolled manner.

Egyptology became an academic discipline was founded by three gentlemen from France, Germany, and England. In 1880 a technique of scientifically recording excavation in a controlled manner was introduced in Egypt by Sir Flinders Petrie. Sir Petrie is credited with inventing techniques for excavation and sequence dating which helped greatly in in the reconstruction of the Egyptian history from Egypt’s ancient artifacts and cultures. This technique literally, revolutionized archeology because it managed to shove back the origin of the Egypt culture to 4500 BCE[6].  The establishment of British Egypt Exploration Fund which was founded in 1882, promoted some excavation using the newly founded Petrie’s principles.

There are other factors, however, that affected the pursuit of knowledge of the Egyptian past like first the tomb robbers. Tomb robbing took away with it precious artifacts that archeologists would have pieced together to advance the furtherance of the knowledge we have today of ancient Egypt. Secondly, stealing of Egyptian Obelisk by the Romans also hindered the advancement of the understanding of the Egypt past. Stealing them was tantamount to taking the Egyptian history as the Obelisk was significant items central to the Egyptian religion and culture. The two most notable Obelisks stolen from Egypt and now found in Rome were Lateranense obelisk and Flamingo Obelisk. Other factors that affected the furtherance of the knowledge included, the existence of people who traded mummies for money and leisured antiquarians, the demand for Egyptian artifacts by European museums and lastly individual. Like Giovanni Belzoni who is famed for rooting and plundering Egyptian artifacts more than any other individual.

Archeologist's Differences About Nature and Purpose of Archaeology

Archeology can be defined as the study of the human past and present using past material remains. It is a subfield in the discipline of anthropology, which is the study of human cultures. Archeologists study the past and present remains to pursue and comprehend the understanding of past human culture and the way of living. Archeologist main purpose is to reconstruct past cultures from material remains touching on human activities, or items people made and left behind in the past. These material remains are known as the artifacts.

From these remains, archeologists try to re-model what that past culture was like. Archeologists usually study the pattern of artifacts to give them clues about how those people who used to use them lived. There are different types of archaeology, such as historic, prehistoric, underwater and classic, however more often than not the different kinds of archeology overlaps in nature and purpose.

Most relevant part of an archeologist is placing artifacts in their respective time and space. The process of putting objects in the right space and identifying the correct time is known as the context. This process finds its support from what is known in the archeological circles as the geological law of association. This law means that artifacts found in similar geological placement are connected and contemporary to each other in addition to this, objects which sit in lower layers are judged to be older than those which are found above them (geological law of superposition)[7].

The process and the nature of archeology often differ from an archeologist to another. A perfect example is about the pyramids of Giza where two Egyptologists who have undertaken a comprehensive scientific investigation to uncover the engineering technology, religious and the cultural worth of the Giza findings, could not agree on the interpretations of the evidence they had found. In another instance, some archeologists do not agree with suggestions made by classical Greek Historian Herodotus that slaves constructed the Pyramids of Egypt. They are however they were all in agreement that; innovation, good administration and social organization were key in the formation of Egyptian civilization.

The Roles of Divergent Views on Egypt’s Excavations and Discoveries.

The major purpose of archeology is learning about how the human race evolved and how the past communities and societies were developed. Most of the notable societal developments occurred during the period of the prehistoric culture. These ancient cultures existed during a time when writing had not yet been discovered, and for that reason, there was no existing record of writing upon which people would have referred to.

No universal archeological theory can be said to be agreeable to all archeologists. Over time, and as a result of professional rivalries in the field of archeology, there have been several theories which have evolved. The first archeological theory was known as cultural history archeology, which major goal was to explain why cultures have evolved and adapted. Later on, American archeologists rebelled against the cultural history archeology and introduced processual archaeology. These archeologists, led by Binford and Kent Flannery, introduced processual archeology which would be anthropological as well as scientifically supported by hypothesis as well as scientific testing[8].

Another factor that has played a significant role in the field of archeology is imperialism.  The basic entry point of imperialism is power to dominate one society by another. This started from Egypt’s archaic period, the middle period, the new kingdom, the Roman conquest just to mention a few. Other factors that played an essential role in archeology include sexism and racial prejudices.

Questions Great Archeologists Neglect to Ask

The great archeologists to start with, failed to address themselves to the question on the impact of the discovery of human artifacts on the science of prehistoric archaeology. There was a need to explore the links between real science and fiction. The finding of the human antiquities and the acceptance of Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution casted an aspersion as to how the social and cultural nature of the human race could have been met within such a vast period. This current course of events regarding time dramatically hinders the conclusive dealing of contemporary issues that are emanating from a re-evaluation about the meaning and interpretation of archaeological time.

The archeologists also failed to address the question as to the accuracy of the dating of the discovered artifacts. This is because the existing dating techniques are still undergoing refinement and there has never been an accurate dating technique, this then raises the fundamental moral question as to whether the current information we rely on as the correct dating of the archeological finding is correct after all. Even though there exists more than one method of verifying the accuracy of artifacts dating, lack of accurate technique of dating raises questions on the credibility of the accepted history of the human race. If a precise method of dating is found some of the things that are considered factual and certain today will undoubtedly be errors in the future.

Bibliography

Breasted, James Henry. 2001. Ancient records of Egypt. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.

Fagan, Brian M. 2004.The rape of the Nile: tomb robbers, tourists, and archaeologists in Egypt.    Boulder, CO: Westview Press.

Lorton, David, and Miriam Lichtheim. 2008. Ancient

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[1]  "Cracking the Egyptian code: the revolutionary life of Jean-Francois Champollion." Choice Reviews Online 50

[2] Jill Kamil, "Egyptology in the Early Twentieth Century," Labib Habachi, 2007

[3] Breasted, James Henry. "A History Of Egypt.

[4] "Cracking the Egyptian code: the revolutionary life of Jean-Francois Champollion." Choice Reviews Online 50,  

[5] "Rosetta Stone Sequences." Encyclopedia of Genetics, Genomics, Proteomics and Informatics, 2008.

[6] Daly, Okasha El. Egyptology: the missing millennium: ancient Egypt in medieval Arabic writings. Walnut Creek, CA: Left Coast Press, 2009.

[7] Rieppel, Olivier. "The “Law of Superposition”." Evolutionary Theory and the Creation Controversy, 2011, 111-33.

[8] Krieger, William H. "Processual Archaeology." Oxford Bibliographies Online Datasets, 2012.

The Ameican Dream, is it Just a Myth

The American dream

The phrase “American dream” received its first public definition in 1931 by James Truslow who was a historian of great repute. The phrase was contained in his book titled the Epic of America. According to the vision of James Truslow it is “…that dream of land in which life should be better and richer and fuller for everyone, with opportunity for each according to ability or achievement” Adam goes onto to explain that the dream was not about living an extravagant life but rather “…a dream of social order in which each man and each woman shall be able to attain to the fullest stature of which they are innately capable, and be recognized by others for what they are regardless of the fortuitous circumstances of birth or position.” The America Dream became possible then because of the existing environment that promoted conducive to prosperity, peace, and opportunities. However, if the current turn of events is anything to go by not everyone has been able to achieve the American dream. Impediments such as lack of proper education and discrimination have seen the realization of the American dream becoming more of a dream than a reality.

It has become a dream for many Americans to achieve The American Dream. Not so long ago, a study poll conducted in 2009 by PEW Charitable Trusts on ‘Economic Mobility and The American Dream’, indicated that less than half of the Americans believed that it was possible for an individual to begin as a poor person in America, work hard to get rich and remain rich over their lifetime and for many generations to come (Samuel 9). Economic mobility has been a major driving force for making it possible for the Americans to scale up the social ladder. When the same poll was conducted in the year 2014, the level of optimism had significantly reduced and only a quarter of the Americans believed that hard work alone were enough to make someone rich. More than 90% indicated that they put more value on financial stability as opposed to economic mobility (Medhurst 102).  This research was a clear indicator that the American dream was less about how financially mobile a person is and more of how one kept their head afloat.

Poverty has been singled out as one of the key impediments factors towards the achievement of the American Dream. Due to high poverty index levels existing in America today, the economic shocks have been draining family finances and thereby disrupting their saving plans and definitely their social aspirations. The rising unexpected expenses coupled with unpredictable income patterns have seen the expenses eating away the savings of majority of the families in America, even families in the upper end of the social ladder have not been spared either.

The ever-increasing levels of poverty in America can be traced to income inequality that exists in the Americas file and ranks today. According to a survey conducted by the Economic Policy Institute titled The State of Working in America, between 1950’s to early 70’s, the level of income growth was at the same level with the level of income scale but over time, the level of economic growth has stalled and in the process scaling down the level of income (Samuel, 12).

The other issue that has been impeding the realization of the American dream is geography and race. When Martin Luther King Jr. made the famous march in the streets of Washington, the march was for jobs and the freedom that usually comes with a stable well-paying job. Whereas there is no doubt whatsoever that civil rights need to be protected, equally so should job creation and fair job allocation be protected. However, the biggest problem today is racial discrimination when it comes to the social mobility. In America when you are born poor you are likely to die poor and when you are born rich you are likely to die a rich.

It is now an accepted norm in the mind of most Americans that your class or position in life will define who you will become in the future. Class and social position do indeed matter as to whether you will make it in life or not. The truth, however, is that the percentage of black people scaling the economic mobility ladder has been dwindling by the day.  The fact that black children are most likely to be born in poverty and to a single parent household than their white counterparts is the reality, and this is the reality that will determine whether or not this child will make it in life or not. According to a research conducted by National Poverty Center, 58% of the poor in America come from racial or ethnic minorities (Medhurst 105). Studies indicate that the rate of upward mobility in a geographical area dominated by a large population of black people is significantly lower as compared to a geographical area dominated by white people. The children with narrower chance to make it in life are children from the black communities too.

The other thing that has compounded the racial mobility gap is discrimination when it comes to employment. Blacks are more likely not to be given jobs or get jobs with higher pay. A research done by William T Grant Foundation indicated that in term of succeeding in getting a job “…black men who have never been incarcerated fare less better in the job market than white men just out of prison” (Samuel, 10). This unfortunate turn of event is also replicated in the way Americans choose their life partners. There has been a growing tendency that the rich educated people are opting to marry rich educated people some of these social tendencies have had the effect of increasing the intergenerational inequalities.

Lack of proper education has been a big impediment towards the realization of the American dream. Over the past few years, a huge gap in terms of social mobility and wealth has emerged among the less educated population in America. The American dream main focus was with regard to emerging opportunities in comparison with the human success. In the past, the cornerstone toward the realization of the American dream was pegged on hard work, but recent studies have shown shifts in that belief. Today, for a person to achieve the American dream, you need to work hard and have a good education. Education is important to enable a person to secure a good job that pays anti-poverty wages.

The income gap between those who have a good education and those who are less educated has been on the rise. The well -being of many households is now more dependable on the level of education of the household head than anything else. Many Americans believe that the key to achieving the American dream is a good education, but for most of the American families meeting the total cost of college education has been a tall order indeed. Due to lack of school fees and crushing student loans experienced by others, most of the American youths have been forced to drop out of school in favor of menial jobs leading to ultimate deferring of their American dream. Although having an education does not guarantee you to live the American dream, many people are in agreement that education is the springboard that can catapult an individual towards the achievement of that dream. However, the biggest limitation towards the achievement of the American dream is the high costs of the college education coupled with the burden of paying college debts.

The American Dream as earlier anticipated by James Truslow has not been fully realized, due to various reasons. The dream was based on a society where all people will be accorded equal opportunities to realize their dreams irrespective of their race, gender or their geographical location. In the course of time, lack of equal opportunities due to racial, gender and geographical discrimination as well as inability to access quality of education by most Americans have played central role issues in derailing, impeding or at worse extinguishing hopes of many Americans of attaining the now ever-elusive American dream.

Cited works

Gonzales-Estacio, M. “How typical freshmen plan to write an essay”. Far Eastern University English Language Journal, (2008).

Samuel, L. “The American dream.” Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, (2012).

The Hay Market Riot of 1870

The Hay market Riot of 1870

The strong industrial growth that was witnessed in America between the year 1870’s and 1880’s saw the emergence of unions formed to represent and protect the right of the workers. At around this time, industrial workers strikes were a common occurrence in the United States.  The increase in the number of industrial strikes coincide with the poor working conditions, low wages, lack of safety in the factories, lack of workers benefits and long working hours which were between 10 to 12 hours 6 days in a week. The pioneer labor movement at this time was the Knights of Labor (K.O.L) which had a membership of more than 700,000 workers. The labor movement during these times consisted of three radical factions, the socialists, communists, and anarchists. Most of the members of the K.O.L wanted the capitalist system mode of governance dismantled for promoting the exploitation of workers. Majority of the members of the labor radicals were immigrants from Germany. The K.O.L main focus was aimed at reduction of working hours to a maximum of 8 hours per day.

On the 3rd of May 1886, workers from the Mc Cormick Company Ltd staged a strike which was aimed at agitating for the reduction of working hours to a maximum of 8 hours. In the course of the strike, a confrontation ensued between the police and the demonstrators. In the aftermath, one person was killed and much more injured. To protest the alleged police cruelty of 3rd May, the anarchist faction of the K.O.L planned a protest rally where more than 20,000 demonstrators were expected to take part (Kallman, 758). The venue of the demonstration was Haymarket Square. Because of bad weather on that day, the number of the demonstrators dwindled to about 1500 and 2000 (Kallman  760). The mayor who was also in attendance gave the strike a clean bill of health and left the venue. The gathering was continued peacefully until when a contingent of policemen arrived and forcefully attempted to disperse the crowd in contravention of the mayor’s orders. At that time a pipe bomb was thrown at where the policemen had assembled killing seven police officers instantly and wounding more others. Police in retaliation fired abruptly into the crowd killing four workers along the way.

The period that followed the Haymarket Square riot was followed by panic and xenophobic attacks aimed at radical immigrants and the leadership of the Knights of Labor movement. The police operation saw detention of many workers, who were beaten up in an effort by police to obtain a confession; at the end of this police operation, eight  anarchists were arraigned in court for plotting to commit murder. Out of the eight, seven were convicted to hang by a biased judge who relied on the antagonistic jurors despite. This took place despite the obvious lack of evidence of the eight involvement in the bombing (Linder 15).

Reacting to this unfortunate judgment James Henretta and David Brody renowned historians in their book America: A Concise History states that the Haymarket defendants were “ victims of the great miscarriage of American Justice. Another textbook authored by a Historian  H.W. Brands titled The American Stories was of the opinion that there was no proof that those people who were prosecuted were indeed guilty. Brands continue to argue that the incident only exposed the gross hypocrisy that was bedeviling the government and the judiciary of the day.  A historian of great repute called Messer – Kruse has tried to rebut this argument that the, eight who were prosecuted were innocent workers. To rebut this analogy he has published two books titled The Trial of the Haymarket Anarchists, and The Haymarket Conspiracy. Messer- Kluse argues that the eight men received a fair trial depending on the legal standards that were existing during those days (Messer-Kruse 16). He continues to argue that blame should be shifted to the legal defense team which according to him, were committed more to political show off more than defending the course of their clients.

The Haymarket incidence however never ended with the prosecution and execution of some of the defendants, the critics of the harsh judgment continued to seek for clemency of the remaining three victims. They argued that there victims of government witch hunting. Their continued agitations bored fruits when Governor John Altered of Illinois after reviewing the trial documents sighted that the case was raced with judicial bias and inspired by the public interest. These resulted in the unconditional pardon and release of the prisoners namely Neebe, Schwab and Fielden

Despite the unfortunate turn of events, the Haymarket riot has gone on to inspire generation after generation of labor movement leaders across the globe. The photos of the three gentlemen otherwise known as the “Haymarket Martyrs” have found their way into many labor movement halls all over the world.  Diego Rivera, an artist, made an exhibition of the three alongside another picture of the Mayday protest in a mural that appeared in the Mexico City. Courtesy of the May protest it is an internationally recognized practice that an employee should work for a maximum of 8 hours per day. Also, 1st May has been set aside as a day to Commemorate International Workers Day.

Despite the founding father of the pioneer Labor movement paying the ultimate cost for their contribution towards the protection and representation of the workers, Most of the workers are now enjoying the fruits of what they fought for. Across the globe, the working condition has improved dramatically, with the safety of the worker becoming a priority, workers now work for lesser hours (maximum of 8 hours), and they are entitled to a number work-related benefits.

Works cited

Linder, D. The Haymarket Riot and Subsequent Trial: An Account. SSRN Electronic Journal. (2007).

Kallman, M. Making the cosmopolitan canopy in Boston's Haymarket Square. Ethnic And Racial Studies,

Messer-Kruse, T. The trial of the Haymarket anarchists. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. (2011).

Port Authority Police Department of the United States

Port Authority Police Department of the United States

 Port Authority Police Department was formed in June 1928. It was pioneered by a group of about 40 men who were tasked with manning the Goethals Bridge and the famous Outer bridge crossing. The number of port police officers kept increasing as the port authority facilities also kept growing. This was necessitated by the opening of Holland Tunnel in the year 1927. The Holland tunnel included three major transport hubs which included; three metropolitan airports, marine terminals launched in 1940’s and the Port Authority bus terminal. The Port Authority Police Department had been instrumental in the fight against trans-border crimes, but there have been some reservations as to the department’s effectiveness, due to vices like corruption that has riddled the police department in the recent past.

Some of the facilities manned by the Port Authority Police Department are Newark Liberty International Airport, LaGuardia International Airport, and John F Kennedy International Airport. They can carry about 110 million air travelers, 206 million tonnes of cargo transportation and approximately 1.3 million air movements (Kang 748). Some of the duties and functions of the port police department include screening of passengers, addressing and attending to all aircrafts incidents and giving assistance to the travelers where necessary. The police officers manning these facilities are also in-charge of protection and escort of visiting dignitaries on a daily basis.

The Port Authority marine facilities in Newark Elizabeth and Brooklyn piers facilitates the handling of millions metrics of cargo per year. Security wise, the ports are managed by Port Authority Police Department. Other duties that are carried out by the port police includes traffic control of the sea vessels as well as the prevention and investigation of cargo theft.

Another unit of Port Authority Police Department that plays a very critical role in the Criminal Investigations Bureau is the bureau is made up of detectives and supervisors. Officers in this department have specialized skills necessary to deal with and investigate crimes taking place in the transportation facilities. The investigation bureau is also in charge of prevention and prosecution of a person engaged in criminal activities such as the; ticket fraud, and drugs smuggling. The police officers are located in all the major ports of the U.S such as Port Newark Marine Terminal, the Jersey Port, Howland Hook and Brooklyn piers. The Port Authority Police Department headquarter is housed in the Jersey City. The headquarters is the nerve center for coordinating all the departments’ activities. The Headquarter is mandated with carrying out, coordinating and overseeing all police operation in the port facilities. The Port Authority Police Department is divided into small units or facilities headed by the facility commander to ease in the coordination of its different programs.

The Port Police Department is also in charge of managing the PABT bus terminus which is one of the world busiest bus terminals in the world. Officers assigned to the bus terminus serves the public in various ways such as locating lost children, missing persons, personal effects as well as maintaining the general security of the facility. Where need be the police counseling department officers located in this facility are assigned the duty of offering to counsel, facilitating lost person reunion with other family members and placement of lost persons with the appropriate social services agencies. At major U.S  crossings such as the Bayonne, Goethals, Holland, Lincoln Tunnels, Outerbridge Crossing as well as the George Washington bridges, the police officers stationed here plays the critical roles of patrol, general traffic control, inspecting hazardous cargo, truck weighing and prosecuting persons found violating traffic laws.

In the recent past, however, the department has come under seething attack from the public due to; patronage by the authority commissioners, excessive overtime salary allowances, strong union rules, in the ability to respond to emergencies as well as the department’s laxity in the recruitment of officers from minority groups. The public outcry and allegations have been vindicated by the occurrence of events that has brought into question the credibility of the Port Authority Police Department. One of the most outstanding incidences was the inability of the department to respond to the bombing of the Americas trading center of 2011 and resignation in disgrace of a former port authority chairman David Samson in 2014. David Samson pleaded guilty to bribery charges leveled against him in the course of duty as the chairman; he convicted of conspiracy about Bridgegate lane-closure scandal of the 2013 (Vonnahme1310).

In addition to the above incidences, the most memorable of these all was the stampede that occurred at Kennedy Airport in 2016 caused by a false report of a terror attack in terminal 1 and 8 of the airport. The terminals stayed closed for several hours despite the alleged high training and several drills that the officers are exposed to on firefighting. During this melee, anomalies were discovered that highlighted how unprepared the department was regarding securing the safety of the travelers. It was found for example that, there was no addressable signage and that the police officers lacked access to either public address system or cell phone alert system to alert and tell clients where to go and lacked proper rescue and evacuation procedures.

Since 1928 when the port authority police department was formed. The agency has done all that is humanly possible to ensure that transport facilities and crossing in America are safe for all the persons accessing or using them. The rapid growth of the department over the years is a clear indication that the services given by the department are important in securing America. However, the underlying challenges that have recently dogged the department need to be addressed to make the services delivered by the unit better and beyond reproach

Works cited

Kang, Yun-Ho. "The Governance And Agent Problems Of Public Agency: Focused On The Port Authority     Of New York And New Jersey." Journal of Korean Navigation and Port Research 2009.

Vonnahme, Beth Miller. "Surviving Scandal: An Exploration Of The Immediate And Lasting Effects Of     Scandal On Candidate Evaluation." Social Science Quarterly 2014.